Central Nervous System Disorders & Therapeutics

Neurodegeneration is the progressive loss of both structure or functioning of neurons, including their death. Many neurodegenerative diseases- including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, fatal familial insomnia, and Huntington's disease- occur as a result of neurodegenerative processes. Such diseases are incurable and cause problems with movement (ataxias), or mental functioning (dementias). Of these Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease are the most common ones. It is observed that the combination of a person’s genes and the related environment contributes to the risk of developing a neurodegenerative disease

Cerebral dysfunction might be central or worldwide. Central dysfunction is caused by typical adjuvant variations and worldwide dysfunction is caused by some poisonous metabolic issue and diffuses aggravation, vasculopathy, significant injury, or scattered growth; these ailments influence various measurements of cerebral capacity whereas Neuronal Disorders might be characterized as the scatters of the Brain, Spine and nerves that interface them. For instance: Alzheimer's disease (AD), Epilepsy, Multiple sclerosis and so forth. Cerebral disorders include cerebral hemorrhage, cerebral ischemia, cerebral embolism, cerebral aneurysm and vascular malformation. The study includes the Risk factors, Epidemiology of cerebrovascular diseases and Technological advances in vascular surgery. Neuronal Disorders include Brain Disorders, Spinal Disorders, Depression, Migraines and Headaches, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, Multiple sclerosis, Schizophrenia, Parkinsonism and Movement Disorders, Dementia (AD), Prion disease, Werdnig-Hoffmann Disease

Spinal disease is a condition that refers to impaired backbone. These include the diseases of the back/ spine such as kyphosis, Dorsalgia (back pain). Other spinal diseases include spinal muscular atrophy, ankylosing spondylitis, lumbar spinal stenosis, spina bifida, spinal tumors, cauda equina syndrome and osteoporosis. Cervical spine disease is also a spinal disease. Degenerative disc disease is caused when the discs within each vertebra in the neck fall apart and begin to disintegrate over time. Spinal fusion is a surgery that is done to join two or more vertebrae to form one single structure. The goal of this is to stop movement between two bones and hence prevents back pain. Once after fusion, they no longer move like before. Most common back surgeries include Vertebroplasty and kyphoplasty, Spinal laminectomy/spinal decompression, Discectomy, Foraminotomy, Nucleoplasty (plasma disk decompression), Spinal fusion, artificial disk replacement

Despite major advancements in the management of infectious diseases, central nervous system (CNS) infections remain a great challenge. They are often difficult to diagnose, and treatments are not adequate or even nonexistent. Bioterrorism is a threat because CNS pathogens can be used as weapons. Human and animal products for treatment also involve risk. There is a need for monitoring of incidence and burden of undiagnosed CNS infections. Lack of Treatments to Neuroinfectious Diseases is also a major challenge. Neuroimmunological disorders consist of diseases in which the immune system attacks the central or peripheral nervous systems.  Deregulation of both adaptive and acquired immune responses, impairment of crosstalk between these two systems, as well as alterations in sequence of innate immune mechanisms can predispose the central nervous system (CNS) to autoimmunity and neurodegeneration. Multiple sclerosis is a type of neuroimmunological disorder that affects many people that features CNS inflammation, immune-mediated demyelination and neurodegeneration

Neurogenetics is the study of role of genetics in the functioning and development of the nervous system. It considers neuronal characteristics as phenotypes of the genetic make-up of an individual which is mainly based on the observation that even though belonging to the same species the nervous systems of individuals, may not be identical. Neurogenetics draws aspects from both the neuroscience and genetic studies, focusing on how the genetic code carried by an organism affects its expressed traits. Mutations in the genetic sequence may have a wide range of effects on the quality of life of the individual. Neurological diseases, their behaviour and personality are all studied in the context of neurogenetics. Different disorders result from genetically abnormalities of enzymes and the metabolic consequences which affect the development and functioning of the nervous system. Some of the neurometabolic disorders include ataxias, movement disorders, childhood epilepsies, or peripheral neuropathy

Clinical neuroscience is a branch of neuroscience which focuses on scientific study of fundamental and basic mechanisms that underlie diseases and disorders of the brain and central nervous system.  It mainly seeks to develop new ways to conceptualize and diagnose such disorders and ultimately of developing novel treatments. Neuropsychiatry is a branch of medicine that deals with mental disorders that attributes to diseases of the central and peripheral nervous systems. It leads the current disciplines of psychiatry and neurology, which had common training; however, psychiatry and neurology have subsequently distinguished apart and are basically practiced separately. Nevertheless, neuropsychiatry has become a growing subtopic of psychiatry and it is also closely related to the neuropsychology and behavioural neurology fields

Neuroplasticity is also called as brain plasticity, neuroelasticity, or neural plasticity. It is the ability of the brain to change continuously throughout an individual's life. The aim of neuroplasticity is to maintain optimization in the neural networks during phylogenesis, ontogeny, and physiological learning and after brain injury. Neuroplasticity can be observed at different scales, from microscopic changes in individual neurons to larger-scale changes such as cortical remapping in response to injury. Behaviour, environmental stimuli, thought, and emotions may also cause changes in neuroplasticity, which has significant implications for healthy development, learning, memory, and recovery from brain damage. Neurorehabilitation is a very complicated medical process which aims to help recovery from nervous system injury, and to minimize and/or recompense for any functional alterations resulted by it. Neurorehabilitation offers a series of therapies from psychological to occupational, teaching or re-training patients on skills of mobility, communication processes, and other aspects of that person's daily routine. While the field of neurorehabilitation is relatively new, many therapies are controversial and some are considered cutting edge technology. Neurorehabilitation is a blend of many different fields to provide the best care and education for patients with nervous system affecting injuries or diseases

Neuro-oncology is a study of brain and spinal cord neoplasms which are very dangerous and life-threatening. Among the malignant brain cancers, gliomas of the brainstem and pons, glioblastoma multiforme, and highly anaplastic astrocytoma are the worst. Surgery may in some case be curative, but malignant brain cancers tend to regenerate and emerge easily, especially the highly malignant cases. In such cases, the main aim is to excise as much of the tumour cells and tumour margin without endangering vital functions or cognitive abilities. Neurosurgery, or neurological surgery, is the medical specialty that is concerned with the prevention, diagnosis, surgical treatment, and rehabilitation of disorders which affect the nervous system including the brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves, and cerebrovascular system. In most countries the training for neurosurgeons requires a period of seven years after medical school graduation. The main advancements in neurosurgery came as a result of highly crafted surgical tools. General neurosurgery involves most neurosurgical conditions including neuro-trauma and other neuro-emergencies such as intracranial haemorrhage. Some of the divisions of neurosurgery are vascular neurosurgery, Stereotactic neurosurgery, Oncological neurosurgery, Skull base surgery, Spinal neurosurgery, Peripheral nerve surgery, Paediatric neurosurgery (for cancer, seizures, bleeding, stroke, cognitive disorders or congenital neurological disorders)

Headache is a symptom of pain in face, head, or neck. It can occur as a migraine, tension-type, or cluster headache. Frequent headaches may affect relationships and employment. There is also an increased risk of depression in people with severe headaches. Treatment of a headache depends on the cause underlying it, but commonly involves pain medication. A headache is one of the most commonly experienced of all the other physical discomforts. There are about 200 types of headaches. Some are harmless and some may be life-threatening. The description of headache and neurological examination findings, determine whether additional tests are needed and what is the best treatment method. Migraine is a primary headache disorder characterized by recurrent headaches that range from moderate to severe. Typically, the headaches affect one half of the head and are pulsating in nature that lasts from a few hours to 2-3 days. Symptoms associated may include nausea, vomiting and sensitivity to light, sound, or smell. The pain in general goes worse by physical activity

Pediatric neurology or child neurology refers to a branch of medicine that is specialized to deal with the diagnosis and management of neurological conditions in neonates (newborns), infants, children and adolescents. Pediatric neurology encloses diseases and disorders of the spinal cord, brain, peripheral nervous system, autonomic nervous system, muscles and blood vessels that affect individuals of these age groups. If a child is facing a problem that involves the nervous system, a pediatric neurologist has the specialised training and knowledge to assess, diagnose and treat the child. The conditions that are dealt by pediatric neurologists vary considerably, from typical simple disorders such as migraine or cerebral palsy to more complex and rare conditions such as metabolic disorders or neurodegenerative diseases. Geriatric neurology is elaborated by its expertise in the diagnosis, treatment, and care of neurological conditions that affect elderly people and by its unique knowledge related to the aging nervous system that becomes vulnerable to specific neurological disorders, and its influence on the expression and prevalence of neurological disease. Neurologists are called with increased frequency to provide care for older adults. As the number of aged in the population increases, there will be an equivalent increase in the prevalence of acute and chronic neurological disorders associated with advanced age

Cognitive neuroscience is an interdisciplinary area of study that is known to be emerged from the branches neuroscience and psychology. Cognitive neuroscience is the scientific field that is mainly concerned with the study of the biological processes and various aspects that underlie cognition with a special focus on the neural connections of brain which are involved in mental processes. It addresses how cognitive activities are commonly affected or controlled by neural circuits in the nervous system. Cognitive neuroscience is a branch that includes both neuroscience and psychology, overlapping the disciplines like behavioural neuroscience, cognitive psychology, physiological psychology and affective neuroscience. Cognitive neuroscience mainly relies upon theories in cognitive science that are coupled with evidences obtained from neurobiology, and computational neuroscience. Various methods that are employed in cognitive neuroscience include experimental procedures from psychophysics, cognitive psychology, functional neuroimaging, electrophysiology, cognitive genomics, and other behavioural genetics. Cognitive abilities that are based on brain development are studied and examined under the subfield known as developmental cognitive neuroscience

Computational neuroscience is also known as theoretical neuroscience/ mathematical neuroscience. It is a branch of neuroscience that makes use of mathematical models, theoretical analysis and abstractions of brain to understand various principles that involve the development, structure, physiology and cognitive abilities of the nervous system. The main focus of computational neuroscience is on the description of biologically plausible neurons and neural systems and their physiology and dynamics, and hence it is not concerned with biologically unrealistic models that are used in connectionism, machine learning, artificial neuronal networks, artificial intelligence and computational learning. Models in theoretical are aim at capturing the essential features of the biological systems at multiple spatial-temporal scales, from membrane currents, and chemical coupling via network oscillations, columnar and topographic architecture and all the way up to the memory, learning and behaviour of the individual. These computational models help mostly in framing hypotheses that are directly tested by biological or psychological experiments

A neurological examination is the assessment of sensory neuron and motor responses, mainly the reflexes in order to determine if the nervous system is impaired. This mainly includes a physical examination and a review of the patient's medical history but not deeper investigation such as neuroimaging. It can be used as a screening tool when there is no expected neurological deficit as well as an investigative tool when you do expect to find abnormalities. If a problem is found in either of these processes then further tests can be carried out to focus on other aspects of the nervous system disorders. Novel therapeutics deals with the recent treatment strategies like therapeutic brain stimulation (electric and magnetic), tau-based strategies in treating neurodegenerative diseases, anti-amyloid therapy, as well as comprehensive treatment, therapeutic dilemmas in multiple sclerosis and future research directions in brain disorders. Neurosurgery is also a significant topic which is under research for bringing out further cure and solutions. Treatment of psychological and neurological issues is combined as Neuro-therapeutics. In spite of surgical methods other therapeutic methodologies are being used widely for neuronal damage and various other neuropsychological, neuropharmacological issues. These remarkable advances in aspects like animal models, genetics, biomarkers and drug discovery have led to the development of novel neurotherapeutics

Clinical trials are a small part the research work that leads to development of a new treatment. Clinical trials are experiments/ observations carried out in clinical research. Clinical trials testing new treatments are divided into different stages also called as phases. The earliest phase trials may look at whether a drug is safe or the side effects it causes. Later phase trials aim to test whether a new treatment is better than existing ones. Clinical trials are research studies performed in people who are aimed at evaluating a medical, surgical, or behavioural intervention. This is the primary way that helps the researchers to find out if a new treatment, like a new drug or diet or medical device is safe and effective in people. Often a clinical trial is targeted to learn if the new treatment is more effective and/or has less harmful side effects than the standard treatment. Case studies are the main precious resources for obtaining education and more information to the physician to perform clinical trials. Clinical trials and case studies help in moving on with the next step in assessment, diagnosis and management of various neurological disorders